--- - description: 'To examine the occurrence, hydrologic variability, and seasonal variability of human and bovine viruses in surface water, three stream locations were monitored in the Milwaukee River watershed in Wisconsin, USA, from February 2007 through June 2008. Monitoring sites included an urban subwatershed, a rural subwatershed, and the Milwaukee River at the mouth. To collect samples that characterize variability throughout changing hydrologic periods, a process control system was developed for unattended, large-volume (56-2800 L) filtration over extended durations. This system provided flow-weighted mean concentrations during runoff and extended (24-h) low-flow periods. Human viruses and bovine viruses were detected by real-time qPCR in 49% and 41% of samples (n = 63), respectively. All human viruses analyzed were detected at least once including adenovirus (40% of samples), GI norovirus (10%), enterovirus (8%), rotavirus (6%), GII norovirus (1.6%) and hepatitis A virus (1.6%). Three of seven bovine viruses analyzed were detected including bovine polyomavirus (32%), bovine rotavirus (19%), and bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 (5%). Human viruses were present in 63% of runoff samples resulting from precipitation and snowmelt, and 20% of low-flow samples. Maximum human virus concentrations exceeded 300 genomic copies/L. Bovine viruses were present in 46% of runoff samples resulting from precipitation and snowmelt and 14% of low-flow samples. The maximum bovine virus concentration was 11 genomic copies/L. Statistical modeling indicated that stream flow, precipitation, and season explained the variability of human viruses in the watershed, and hydrologic condition (runoff event or low-flow) and season explained the variability of the sum of human and bovine viruses; however, no model was identified that could explain the variability of bovine viruses alone. Understanding the factors that affect virus fate and transport in rivers will aid watershed management for minimizing human exposure and disease transmission. ' display_name: 'Human and bovine viruses in the Milwaukee River watershed: Hydrologically relevant representation and relations with environmental variables' doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.072 identifier: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.072 journal_identifier: science-total-environment journal_pages: 849-860 journal_vol: 490 notes: ~ title: 'Human and bovine viruses in the Milwaukee River watershed: Hydrologically relevant representation and relations with environmental variables' type: article uri: /article/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.05.072 url: ~ year: 2014 - description: 'Until recently, few water utilities or researchers were aware of possible virus presence in deep aquifers and wells. During 2008 and 2009 we collected a time series of virus samples from six deep municipal water-supply wells. The wells range in depth from approximately 220 to 300 m and draw water from a sandstone aquifer. Three of these wells draw water from beneath a regional aquitard, and three draw water from both above and below the aquitard. We also sampled a local lake and untreated sewage as potential virus sources. Viruses were detected up to 61% of the time in each well sampled, and many groundwater samples were positive for virus infectivity. Lake samples contained viruses over 75% of the time. Virus concentrations and serotypes observed varied markedly with time in all samples. Sewage samples were all extremely high in virus concentration. Virus serotypes detected in sewage and groundwater were temporally correlated, suggesting very rapid virus transport, on the order of weeks, from the source(s) to wells. Adenovirus and enterovirus levels in the wells were associated with precipitation events. The most likely source of the viruses in the wells was leakage of untreated sewage from sanitary sewer pipes. ' display_name: Source and transport of human enteric viruses in deep municipal water supply wells doi: 10.1021/es400509b identifier: 10.1021/es400509b journal_identifier: environmental-science-technology journal_pages: 4096-4103 journal_vol: 47 notes: ~ title: Source and transport of human enteric viruses in deep municipal water supply wells type: article uri: /article/10.1021/es400509b url: ~ year: 2013 - description: 'Objectives. This study investigated if the type of drinking water source (treated municipal, untreated municipal, and private well water) modifies the effect of hydrology on childhood (aged < 5 years) gastrointestinal illness. Methods. We conducted a time series study to assess the relationship between hydrologic and weather conditions with childhood gastrointestinal illness from 1991 to 2010. The Central and Northern Wisconsin study area includes households using all 3 types of drinking water systems. Separate time series models were created for each system and half-year period (winter/spring, summer/fall). Results. More precipitation (summer/fall) systematically increased childhood gastrointestinal illness in municipalities accessing untreated water. The relative risk of contracting gastrointestinal illness was 1.4 in weeks with 3 centimeters of precipitation and 2.4 in very wet weeks with 12 centimeters of precipitation. By contrast, gastrointestinal illness in private well and treated municipal areas was not influenced by hydrologic conditions, although warmer winter temperatures slightly increased incidence. Conclusions. Our study suggests that improved drinking water protection, treatment, and delivery infrastructure may improve public health by specifically identifying municipal water systems lacking water treatment that may transmit waterborne disease ' display_name: 'Drinking water systems, hydrology, and childhood gastrointestinal illness in central and northern Wisconsin' doi: 10.2105/ajph.2013.301659 identifier: 10.2105/ajph.2013.301659 journal_identifier: american-journal-public-health journal_pages: 639-646 journal_vol: 104 notes: ~ title: 'Drinking water systems, hydrology, and childhood gastrointestinal illness in central and northern Wisconsin' type: article uri: /article/10.2105/ajph.2013.301659 url: ~ year: 2014