---
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: 'Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate. Regions of Focus: North America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Islands. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  display_name: SAP 3.3. Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-3_3-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2008
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: 'Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate. Regions of Focus: North America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Islands. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  title: SAP 3.3. Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate
  topic: 'Extreme Events,Physical Climate'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-3_3-2008
  url: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap3-3/sap3-3-final-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems. A report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
  display_name: SAP 4.2. Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-4_2-2009
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2009
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems. A report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
  title: SAP 4.2. Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems
  topic: Ecosystems
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-4_2-2009
  url: https://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap4-2/sap4-2-final-report-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: 'The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  display_name: 'SAP 4.3. The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity.'
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-4_3-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2008
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: 'The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  title: 'SAP 4.3. The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity.'
  topic: 'Ecosystems,Land Use & Land Cover,Water Resources,Agriculture & Food'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-4_3-2008
  url: https://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap4-3/sap4.3-final-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
  display_name: SAP 4.4. Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-4_4-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2008
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
  title: SAP 4.4. Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources
  topic: 'Ecosystems,Adaptation'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-4_4-2008
  url: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap4-4/sap4-4-final-report-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: 'Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study, Phase I. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  display_name: 'SAP 4.7. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study'
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-4_7-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2008
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: 'Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study, Phase I. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  title: 'SAP 4.7. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study'
  topic: 'Coasts,Infrastructure,Adaptation'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-4_7-2008
  url: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap4-7/sap4-7-final-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: ~
  display_name: 'SAP 5.1. Uses and Limitations of Observations, Data, Forecasts, and Other Projections in Decision Support for Selected Sectors and Regions. '
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-5_1-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: ~
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: ~
  title: 'SAP 5.1. Uses and Limitations of Observations, Data, Forecasts, and Other Projections in Decision Support for Selected Sectors and Regions. '
  topic: 'Agriculture & Food,Energy,Human Health,Water Resources,Observing Systems,Modeling,Infrastructure,Adaptation,Mitigation'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-5_1-2008
  url: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap5-1/sap5-1-final-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: 'Decision-Support Experiments and Evaluations using Seasonal-to-Interannual Forecasts and Observational Data: A Focus on Water Resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  display_name: SAP 5.3. Decision Support Experiments and Evaluations Using Seasonal to Interannual Forecasts and Observational Data
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: ccsp-sap-5_3-2008
  in_library: 1
  publication_year: 2008
  report_type_identifier: report
  summary: 'Decision-Support Experiments and Evaluations using Seasonal-to-Interannual Forecasts and Observational Data: A Focus on Water Resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research.'
  title: SAP 5.3. Decision Support Experiments and Evaluations Using Seasonal to Interannual Forecasts and Observational Data
  topic: 'Water Resources,Adaptation,Observing Systems,Modeling'
  type: report
  uri: /report/ccsp-sap-5_3-2008
  url: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/sap/sap5-3/sap5-3-final-all.pdf
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1.\tThis indicator measures different types of forest cover and their locations throughout the contiguous United States. Forest cover is affected by climate factors, such as drought or increased rainfall, and human factors, such as changes in land use or management.  \r\n\r\n2.\tForests accounted for about 29% of the land area in the contiguous United States in 2011.\r\n\r\n3.\tForest cover data can inform decisions about wildfire control, forest production and preservation, invasive species management, and climate change mitigation strategies.\r\n\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nAs of 2011, forests accounted for about 29% of the land area in the contiguous United States. Human activities—such as fire suppression, changes in grazing patterns, abandonment of agricultural lands, and timber harvest—affect forest cover. Climate, windstorms, fire, insects, and pests also can affect forest cover in some areas. For example, drought can cause tree death and impede tree regrowth. On the other hand, in regions where increased rainfall and soil moisture limit tree growth, forest cover may increase with drought. \r\n\r\nData to visually represent forest cover were obtained from the National Land Cover Dataset (NLCD) produced by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC). In this indicator, forest cover is defined as areas where trees are dominantly greater than 16 feet tall and make up greater than 20% of the total vegetation cover. In addition to forest cover, this indicator also shows cover by woody wetlands. \r\n\r\nForest cover data can inform decisions about wildfire control, forest production and preservation, and invasive species management. Because forests may be used for carbon sequestration, forest cover data can also inform climate change mitigation strategies. In addition to considering forest cover, monitoring the condition of forests through the use of vegetation indices (such as year-to-year variability in peak greenness) may provide further insights.\r\n"
  display_name: 'Indicator: Forest Cover'
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: indicator-forest-cover
  in_library: ~
  publication_year: 2015
  report_type_identifier: indicator
  summary: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1.\tThis indicator measures different types of forest cover and their locations throughout the contiguous United States. Forest cover is affected by climate factors, such as drought or increased rainfall, and human factors, such as changes in land use or management.  \r\n\r\n2.\tForests accounted for about 29% of the land area in the contiguous United States in 2011.\r\n\r\n3.\tForest cover data can inform decisions about wildfire control, forest production and preservation, invasive species management, and climate change mitigation strategies.\r\n\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nAs of 2011, forests accounted for about 29% of the land area in the contiguous United States. Human activities—such as fire suppression, changes in grazing patterns, abandonment of agricultural lands, and timber harvest—affect forest cover. Climate, windstorms, fire, insects, and pests also can affect forest cover in some areas. For example, drought can cause tree death and impede tree regrowth. On the other hand, in regions where increased rainfall and soil moisture limit tree growth, forest cover may increase with drought. \r\n\r\nData to visually represent forest cover were obtained from the National Land Cover Dataset (NLCD) produced by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC). In this indicator, forest cover is defined as areas where trees are dominantly greater than 16 feet tall and make up greater than 20% of the total vegetation cover. In addition to forest cover, this indicator also shows cover by woody wetlands. \r\n\r\nForest cover data can inform decisions about wildfire control, forest production and preservation, and invasive species management. Because forests may be used for carbon sequestration, forest cover data can also inform climate change mitigation strategies. In addition to considering forest cover, monitoring the condition of forests through the use of vegetation indices (such as year-to-year variability in peak greenness) may provide further insights.\r\n"
  title: 'Indicator: Forest Cover'
  topic: ~
  type: report
  uri: /report/indicator-forest-cover
  url: http://www.globalchange.gov/browse/indicators/indicator-forest-cover
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1.\tThis indicator measures cover by grasslands, shrublands, pastures, and herbaceous wetlands in the contiguous United States. These land cover types respond to climate influences, such as changes in rainfall or wildfire, and to human influences, such as changes in land use or management.  \r\n\r\n2.\tGrasslands, shrublands, pastures, and herbaceous wetlands accounted for nearly half of all land area in the contiguous United States in 2011.\r\n\r\n3.\tData about grassland, shrubland, pasture, and herbaceous wetland cover can inform decisions about managing impacts of climate change on agriculturally and ecologically important systems.\r\n\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nThis indicator includes grassland and herbaceous cover (cover that dies back during the winter), pasture and hay cover, shrub- and scrublands, and emergent herbaceous wetlands (similar to grassland and herbaceous cover, but with soil that is periodically saturated or covered by water). These land cover types accounted for about 47% of the land area in the contiguous United States in 2011. \r\n\r\nThe extent and distribution of these land cover types reflect land management practices, such as prescribed fire and grazing. They also reflect climate conditions; for example, in areas where water is scarce, changes in rainfall and temperature can shift the location of boundaries between different types of land cover. Data used to delineate land cover types were obtained from the National Land Cover Dataset (NLCD) produced by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MLCD). \r\n\r\nThe land cover types shown here provide a range of ecosystem services, such as habitat for wildlife, water supply and quality, and open space for recreation. Grasslands and pastures also support a variety of agricultural practices, such as commercial livestock grazing and cropping. Land cover data can help decision makers assess the impacts of climate and management choices on agriculturally and ecologically important systems. In addition to considering cover, monitoring the condition of grasslands and pastures through the use of vegetation indices (such as year-to-year variability in the peak and duration of greenness) may provide further insights. \r\n"
  display_name: 'Indicator: Grassland, Shrubland, and Pasture Cover'
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: indicator-grassland-shrubland-pasture-cover
  in_library: ~
  publication_year: 2015
  report_type_identifier: indicator
  summary: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1.\tThis indicator measures cover by grasslands, shrublands, pastures, and herbaceous wetlands in the contiguous United States. These land cover types respond to climate influences, such as changes in rainfall or wildfire, and to human influences, such as changes in land use or management.  \r\n\r\n2.\tGrasslands, shrublands, pastures, and herbaceous wetlands accounted for nearly half of all land area in the contiguous United States in 2011.\r\n\r\n3.\tData about grassland, shrubland, pasture, and herbaceous wetland cover can inform decisions about managing impacts of climate change on agriculturally and ecologically important systems.\r\n\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nThis indicator includes grassland and herbaceous cover (cover that dies back during the winter), pasture and hay cover, shrub- and scrublands, and emergent herbaceous wetlands (similar to grassland and herbaceous cover, but with soil that is periodically saturated or covered by water). These land cover types accounted for about 47% of the land area in the contiguous United States in 2011. \r\n\r\nThe extent and distribution of these land cover types reflect land management practices, such as prescribed fire and grazing. They also reflect climate conditions; for example, in areas where water is scarce, changes in rainfall and temperature can shift the location of boundaries between different types of land cover. Data used to delineate land cover types were obtained from the National Land Cover Dataset (NLCD) produced by the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MLCD). \r\n\r\nThe land cover types shown here provide a range of ecosystem services, such as habitat for wildlife, water supply and quality, and open space for recreation. Grasslands and pastures also support a variety of agricultural practices, such as commercial livestock grazing and cropping. Land cover data can help decision makers assess the impacts of climate and management choices on agriculturally and ecologically important systems. In addition to considering cover, monitoring the condition of grasslands and pastures through the use of vegetation indices (such as year-to-year variability in the peak and duration of greenness) may provide further insights. \r\n"
  title: 'Indicator: Grassland, Shrubland, and Pasture Cover'
  topic: ~
  type: report
  uri: /report/indicator-grassland-shrubland-pasture-cover
  url: http://www.globalchange.gov/browse/indicators/indicator-grassland-shrubland-and-pasture-cover
- contact_email: ~
  contact_note: ~
  description: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1. This indicator tracks the start of spring for each year, using model estimations of when enough heat has accumulated to initiate growth (leafing and flowering) in temperature-sensitive plants. The bars on the graph show the number of days by which the start of spring differs from the average start of spring during the last century. Observed changes in the start of spring reflect the overall warming trend in the climate system.\r\n\r\n2. Since 1900, the modeled start of spring (averaged over the contiguous United States) has varied within a three-week range. Since 1984, it typically has occurred earlier relative to the last century’s average, with the earliest spring start occurring in 2012. \r\n\r\n3. This indicator can help decision makers understand and anticipate climate impacts on habitats and species, agricultural production, recreation, and the management of natural hazards such as wildfires.\r\n\t\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nThis indicator estimates the annual start of spring on the basis of when growth can begin for temperature-sensitive native and cultivated plants. It can be used to monitor, assess, and predict variations and trends in spring timing at the national scale. Since 1900, the modeled start of spring (averaged over the contiguous United States) has varied within a three-week range. Since 1984, it typically has occurred earlier relative to the last century’s average, with the earliest spring start occurring in 2012.\r\n\r\nThe bars on the graph show the number of days by which the start of spring differs from the average start of spring during the last century. These values are calculated from a numerical model that simulates the accumulation of heat needed to bring plants out of winter dormancy and into vegetative and reproductive growth. The model is based on (1) long-term observations of lilac and honeysuckle first-leaf and first-bloom, collected by citizen science volunteers at hundreds of sites across the contiguous United States, and (2) daily minimum and maximum temperatures measured at weather stations. The annual start of spring can be estimated for any location where daily minimum and maximum temperatures are recorded. The modeled values correlate well with observed leafing and flowering in a number of native and cultivated species, such as winter wheat, pear, and peach varieties. \r\n\r\nA trend toward earlier springs could have significant implications for agriculture, natural resource and hazard management, and recreation. Decision makers can use this indicator to anticipate climate impacts on habitats and species, optimize crop selection and yield, and assess the potential vulnerability of ecosystems to drought and wildfire.\r\n\r\n"
  display_name: 'Indicator: Start of Spring'
  doi: ~
  frequency: ~
  identifier: indicator-start-of-spring
  in_library: ~
  publication_year: 2015
  report_type_identifier: indicator
  summary: "Key Points:\r\n\r\n1. This indicator tracks the start of spring for each year, using model estimations of when enough heat has accumulated to initiate growth (leafing and flowering) in temperature-sensitive plants. The bars on the graph show the number of days by which the start of spring differs from the average start of spring during the last century. Observed changes in the start of spring reflect the overall warming trend in the climate system.\r\n\r\n2. Since 1900, the modeled start of spring (averaged over the contiguous United States) has varied within a three-week range. Since 1984, it typically has occurred earlier relative to the last century’s average, with the earliest spring start occurring in 2012. \r\n\r\n3. This indicator can help decision makers understand and anticipate climate impacts on habitats and species, agricultural production, recreation, and the management of natural hazards such as wildfires.\r\n\t\r\nFull Summary:\r\n\r\nThis indicator estimates the annual start of spring on the basis of when growth can begin for temperature-sensitive native and cultivated plants. It can be used to monitor, assess, and predict variations and trends in spring timing at the national scale. Since 1900, the modeled start of spring (averaged over the contiguous United States) has varied within a three-week range. Since 1984, it typically has occurred earlier relative to the last century’s average, with the earliest spring start occurring in 2012.\r\n\r\nThe bars on the graph show the number of days by which the start of spring differs from the average start of spring during the last century. These values are calculated from a numerical model that simulates the accumulation of heat needed to bring plants out of winter dormancy and into vegetative and reproductive growth. The model is based on (1) long-term observations of lilac and honeysuckle first-leaf and first-bloom, collected by citizen science volunteers at hundreds of sites across the contiguous United States, and (2) daily minimum and maximum temperatures measured at weather stations. The annual start of spring can be estimated for any location where daily minimum and maximum temperatures are recorded. The modeled values correlate well with observed leafing and flowering in a number of native and cultivated species, such as winter wheat, pear, and peach varieties. \r\n\r\nA trend toward earlier springs could have significant implications for agriculture, natural resource and hazard management, and recreation. Decision makers can use this indicator to anticipate climate impacts on habitats and species, optimize crop selection and yield, and assess the potential vulnerability of ecosystems to drought and wildfire.\r\n\r\n"
  title: 'Indicator: Start of Spring'
  topic: ~
  type: report
  uri: /report/indicator-start-of-spring
  url: http://www.globalchange.gov/browse/indicators/indicator-start-spring